Bombers aircrafts

Bomber

 bomber is a military aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets, by dropping bombs on them,firing torpedoes at them,or, more recently,by launching cruise missiles at them

Classification

Strategic

Strategic bombing is done by heavy bombers primarily designed for long-range bombing missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, shipyards, and cities themselves, in order to diminish the enemy's ability to wage war by limiting access to resources through crippling infrastructure or reducing industrial output. Current examples include the strategic nuclear-armed strategic bombers: B-2 Spirit, B-52 Stratofortress, Tupolev Tu-95 'Bear', Tupolev Tu-22M 'Backfire'; historically notable examples are the: Gotha G.IV, Avro Lancaster, Heinkel He-111, Junkers Ju 88, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, Consolidated B-24 Liberator, Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger'.

Tactical

Tactical bombing, aimed at countering enemy military activity and in supporting offensive operations, is typically assigned to smaller aircraft operating at shorter ranges, typically near the troops on the ground or against enemy shipping. This role is filled by tactical bomber class, which crosses and blurs with various other aircraft categories: light bombers,medium bombers, dive bombers, interdictors, fighter-bombers, attack aircraft, multirole combat aircraft, and others. Current examples: F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, Sukhoi Su-27, Xian JH-7, Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000, and the Panavia Tornado; historical examples: Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, Junkers Ju 87 Stuka, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt,Hawker Typhoon, McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II and Mikoyan MiG-27.

History

The first use of an air-dropped bomb (actually a hand grenade) was carried out by Italian Lieutenant Giulio Gavotti during the 1911 Italo-Turkish war in Libya, although his plane was not designed for the task of bombing, and his improvised attack had little impact

The first bombers

The first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T.B.8, both of 1913.The Bristol T.B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company. They were fitted with a prismaticBombsight in the front cockpit and a cylindrical bomb carrier in the lower forward fuselage capable of carrying twelve 10 lb (4.5 kg) bombs, which could be dropped singly or as a salvo as required.

The aircraft was purchased for use both by the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), and three T.B.8s, that were being displayed in Paris during December 1913 fitted with bombing equipment, were sent to France following the outbreak of war. Under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914.

The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century. Early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and more streamlined form of airship designed by German Count Ferdinand Von Zeppelin, were outfitted to carry bombs to attack targets at long range. These were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, as well as navigational issues. German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the Germany Army lost 26 of its 50 ships.

The Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a twin-boom biplane with three 67 kW (80 hp) Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, and Caproni soon adopted a more conventional approach. The improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915.

While mainly used as a trainer, Avro 504s were also briefly used as bombers at the start of the First World War by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) when they were used for raids on the German airship sheds.

Strategic bombing

Bombing raids and interdiction operations were mainly carried out by French and British forces during the War as the German air armwas forced to concentrate its resources on a defensive strategy. Notably, bombing campaigns formed a part of the British offensive at theBattle of Neuve Chapelle in 1915, with Royal Flying Corps squadrons attacking German railway stations in an attempt to hinder the logistical supply of the [[German army]]. The early, improvised attempts at bombing that characterized the early part of the war slowly gave way to a more organized and systematic approach to strategic and tactical bombing, pioneered by various air power strategists of the Entente, especially Major Hugh Trenchard; he was the first to advocate that there should be "...sustained [strategic bombing] attacks with a view to interrupting the enemy's railway communications...in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies.

Long range bombing raids were carried out at night by multi-engined biplanes such as the Gotha G.IV (whose name was synonymous with all multi-engine German bombers) and later the Handley Page Type O; the majority of bombing was done by single-engined biplanes with one or two crew-members flying short distances to attack enemy lines and immediate hinterland. As the effectiveness of a bomber was dependent on the weight and accuracy of its bombload, ever larger bombers were developed starting in WWI, while considerable money was spent developing suitable bombsights.When the war started, bombing was very crude (hand-held bombs were thrown over the side) yet by the end of the war long-range bombers equipped with complex mechanical bombing computers were being built, designed to carry large loads to destroy enemy industrial targets. The most important bombers used in WWI were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C.III and RussianSikorsky Ilya Muromets. The Russian [[Sikorsky Ilya Muromets]], was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the early stages of the war, as the Central Powers had no comparable aircraft until much later.

World War II

With engine power as a major limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors, bomber designs tended to be tailored to specific roles. By the start of the war this included:

• dive bomber - specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy.
• light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber - subjective definitions based on size.
• torpedo bomber - specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes.
• ground attack aircraft - aircraft used against targets on a battlefield such as troop or tank concentrations. A further specialized form was the anti-tank aircraft.
• night bomber - specially equipped to operate at night when opposing defences are limited.
• maritime patrol - long range bombers that were used against enemy shipping, particularly submarines.

Bombers are not intended to attack other aircraft although most were fitted with defensive weapons. World War II saw the beginning of the widespread use of high speed bombers which dispensed with defensive weapons to be able to attain higher speed, such as with the de Havilland Mosquito, a philosophy that continued with many Cold War bombers.

Some smaller designs have been used as the basis for night fighters, and a number of fighters, such as the Hawker Hurricane were used as ground attack aircraft, replacing earlier conventional light bombers that proved unable to defend themselves while carrying a useful bombload.

cold war

At the start of the Cold War, bombers were the only means of carrying nuclear weapons to enemy targets, and had the role of deterrence. With the advent of guided air to air missiles, bombers needed to avoid interception. High speed and high altitude flying became a means of evading detection and attack. Designs such as the English Electric Canberra could fly faster or higher than contemporary fighters. When surface to air missiles became capable of hitting high flying bombers, bombers were flown at low altitudes to evade radar detection and interception.

Once "stand off" nuclear weapon designs were developed, bombers did not need to pass over the target to make an attack; they could fire and turn away to escape the blast. Nuclear strike aircraft were generally finished in bare metal or anti-flash white to minimize absorption of thermal radiation from the flash of a nuclear explosion.

The need to drop conventional bombs remained in conflicts with non-nuclear powers, such as the Vietnam War or Malayan Emergency.

The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the Cold War because of spiraling costs and the development of the Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) – which was felt to have similar deterrent value while being impossible to intercept. Because of this, the United States Air Force XB-70 Valkyrie program was cancelled in the early 1960s; the later B-1B Lancer and B-2 Spirit aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s remained in use into the 21st century. Similarly, the Soviet Union used the intermediate-range Tu-22M 'Backfire'in the 1970s, but their Mach 3bomber project stalled. The Mach 2 Tu-160 'Blackjack' was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the 1950s Tupolev Tu-16 and Tu-95 'Bear' heavy bombers to continue being used into the 21st century.

The British strategic bombing force largely came to an end when the V bomber force was phased out; the last of which left service in 1983. The French Mirage IV bomber version was retired in 1996, although the Mirage 2000N and the Rafale have taken on this role. The only other nation that fields strategic bombing forces is the People's Republic of China, which has a number of Xian .

modern era

In modern air forces, the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurred. Many attack aircraft, even ones that look like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Indeed, the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter, and vice versa. Conversely, many fighter aircraft, such as the F-16, are often used as 'bomb trucks,' despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of aerial refueling, which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations.

Plans in the U.S. and Russia for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects, and political and funding pressures suggest that they are likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. In the U.S., current plans call for the existing USAF bomber fleet to remain in service until the mid-to-late 2020s, with the first possible replacements becoming operational in 2018 After this bomber the U.S. is also thinking of another bomber in 2037. The 2018 bomber will be made in small quantities as it will be a transition aircraft for this 2037 bomber. The 2018 bomber was, however, required to provide an answer to the fifth generation defense systems (such as SA-21 Growlers, bistatic radar andactive electronically scanned array radar). Also, it was chosen to be able to stand against rising superpowers and other countries with semi-advanced military capability. Finally, a third reason was long-term air support for areas with a low threat level (Iraq, Afghanistan). The latter was referred to as close air support for the global war on terror (CAS for GWOT). The 2018 bomber would thus be able to stay for extended periods on a same location (called persistence.

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Training aircrafts 

A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate in-flight training of pilots and aircrews. The use of a dedicated trainer aircraft with additional safety

features—such as tandem flight controls, forgiving flight characteristics and a simplified cockpit arrangement—allows pilots-in-training to safely advance their real-time piloting, navigation and/or warfighting skills without the danger of overextending their abilities alone in a fully featured aircraft

Civilian pilots are normally trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to allow for student and instructor. The aircraft may be modified to withstand the flight conditions imposed by training flights.

Tandem or side by side

The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are pilot and instructor side by side or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front and the instructor behind. The side-by-side seating configuration has the advantage that pilot and instructor can see each other's actions, allowing the pilot to learn from the instructor and the instructor to correct the student pilot. The tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter.

It is now the norm for pilots to begin their flight training in an aircraft with side by side seating and to progress to aircraft with tandem seating. This however has not always been the case. For example, it was usual to find tandem seating in biplane basic trainers such as the Tiger Moth and the Jungmann, and the British used side by side seating in the operational conversion of some of its fast jets such as the English Electric Lightning.

Phases

Given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to winnow out unsuitable candidates. The cost to those airforces that do not follow a gradated training regimen is not just monetary but also in lives. For example, for many years theIndian Air Force operated without a suitable advanced training aircraft, leading to a high casualty rate as pilots moved to high performance MiG 21 aircraft without suitable assessment of their aptitude for supersonic flight. In times of war the chances of victory increase with the quality of a pilot's training.

There are two main areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills. In operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques.

• Ab initio 

Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in a light aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase pilot candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this purpose include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the USAF Academy, and the Scottish Aviation Bulldogs of the RAF. The USAF replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program (EFSP) with the Diamond DA20 and the Initial Flight Screening (IFS) program. At the end of this stage pilot trainees are assessed as to where their

attributes lie, as fast jet, multi-engine or rotary wing pilots. Those judged unsuitable for a pilot commission, but show other attributes may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators and weapons officers.

Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders and motor gliders for this role.

• Basic training

After the ab-inito phase a candidate may progress to basic trainers/primary trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano. Modern turbo-prop trainers can replicate the handling characteristics of jet aircraft as well as having sufficient performance to assess a candidate's technical ability at an aircraft controls, reaction speed and ability to anticipate events. Prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions and train to fly multi-engined aircraft e.g. transport and tanker aircraft.

• Advanced training

Those that progress to training for fast jet flying will then progress to an advanced trainer, typically capable of high subsonic speeds, high-energy manoeuvers, and equipped with systems that simulate modern weapons and surveillance. Examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130.

Effective combat aircraft are a function now of electronics as much as if not more so than the aerobatic ability or speed of an aircraft. It is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics. Modern advanced trainers feature programmable multi-function displays which can be programmed to simulate different electronic systems and scenarios. Most advanced trainers do not have radar systems of their own, but onboard systems can be programmed to simulate radar contacts. With datalinks and GPS virtual radar systems can be created with similarly equipped aircraft relaying to each other their positions in real time and onboard computers creating a "Radar display" based on this information The aim of programmable displays is to speed pilot training by replicating as far as possible the systems a pilot will find in an operational aircraft.

• Lead-in fighter training

Lead-in fighter training (LIFT) utilises advanced jet trainer aircraft with avionics and stores-management capability that emulate operational fighter planes, to provide efficient training in combat scenarios with reduced training cost compared to moving straight to operational conversion. The on-board avionics system may be linked to ground-based systems, and together they can simulate situations such as infrared or radar guided missile, interceptors, air-to-air and surface-to-air missiles, anti-aircraft batteries, radars, chaff and flare countermeasures and collision warnings, in low or dense electronic warfare environments. Systems may also be able to re-enact true-to-life combat situations.

The two seat aircraft may itself become the basis of an operational aircraft, the second seat being used to create a weapons officer/navigators station in aircraft with originally only a pilot, for example the F-15E Strike Eagle is a development of the F-15D which is a two seat training version of the F-15 Eagle

• Operational conversion

In some two seat fighter aircraft such as the Tornado, the OCU aircraft can be created by duplicating flight controls in the rear cockpit. In normally single seat aircraft a second cockpit can be built behind the original cockpit (e.g. the TA-4S variant of the A-4SU Super Skyhawk) or the cockpit can be extended to place the instructor in a second seat behind the pilot. Once they have qualified in being able to fly a specific type of aircraft and have learned to use these aircraft to best effect, pilots will continue with regular training exercises to maintain qualifications on that aircraft and to improve their skills, for example the USAFs Red Flag exercises. Deployments of small flights of aircraft together with support staff and equipment to exercises conducted by other nations can be used to develop fighting skills and interservice and inter unit competitions in bombing and gunnery between units can also be used to develop those skills.

In some air forces that have a mix of high and low performance aircraft, pilots can be first be assigned to aircraft with a lower level of performance before moving on to the most demanding aircraft. For example in the Italian Air Force a pilot may begin his service career on the AMX attack aircraft, and as his experience grows progress to more capable aircraft such as the Tornado IDS. Other air forces, such as Canada, do not do this and assign first-tour pilots to aircraft such as the CF-18 Hornet.

• Multi-engine trainers

Those pilots who are destined to fly transports, tankers and other multi-engine aircraft begin with small multi-engine aircraft such as the T-44A Pegasus variant of the Beechcraft King Air. Once they have mastered this they may begin to fly in the right hand seat of an operational type. Some airforces will seek to use a restricted number of multi-engined aircraft, with the derivatives of a basic aircraft filling different roles so that a pilot qualified on one of its types can easily convert to others in the same family. For example the Boeing 707 was a popular airliner for conversion to tanker, transport and ELINT variants by numerous air forces.

• Navigation trainers

A minority of military training aircraft, such as the Vickers Varsity, Hawker Siddeley Dominie or Boeing T-43 were developed fromtransport designs to train navigators and other rear crews operators. As these navigational trainees are normally learning how to navigate using instruments, they can be seated at consoles within the aircraft cabin and do not require a direct view of the landscape over which the aircraft is flying. The operators of airborne weapons or radar-related systems can be similarly trained, either in training aircraft or in an operational aircraft during training flights.

Combat use of trainers

In smaller air forces basic trainers, in addition to being used for training, are used as counter insurgency, airborne FAC and in the light strike/COIN role.

Most advanced trainers are capable of carrying and delivering war loads. However most of these aircraft do not have the counter measures and sensors to survive alone in a modern high intensity war fighting scenario, for example being vulnerable to MANPADs. However they may still have a war fighting role in low intensity theatres, and if they operate in conjunction with more capable aircraft.

Historically many jet trainers were marketed with specialised attack variants e.g. the BAC Jet Provost/BAC Strikemaster and the CessnaT-37 Tweet/A-37 Dragonfly. Especially against opponents operating without a fighter screen or an effective anti-aircraft capability, such trainer derived attack aircraft could perform adequately. For example Impala aircraft derived from the Aermacchi MB-326 trainer formed the main strike strength of the South African Air Force in its Bush war, and aircraft such as the Hongdu JL-8 are being acquired for the attack role in low intensity theatres.

Despite their vulnerability even small numbers of combat-equipped trainer aircraft in low-intensity theatres can have a disproportionate effect due to the surprise and shock of coming under air attack, especially when the attacked side believes itself to have a monopoly on air power. Forces that have used light trainer aircraft to great effect include the Biafran use of MFI-9s and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam use of covertly acquired light aircraft

In high-intensity conflicts, advanced trainer type aircraft can have a military utility if they operate within a framework of other assets. For example the German and FrenchDassault/Dornier Alpha Jets had anti-shipping and light strike roles operating under an air umbrella provided by other aircraft, while the RAF planned to use pairs of gun- andAIM-9 Sidewinder-armed Hawk trainers in the point defence role. Each pair of Hawks was to be teamed with a Phantom FGR.2, in effect using the Phantoms as an Airborne Early Warning and Control system. Although never tested it was believed that the Hawk, combined with AIM-9L and flown by some of the best pilots in the RAF including those from theRed Arrows, would have made a viable air defence fighter.

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MIG FIGHTERS

Mikoyan

Russian Aircraft Corporation MiG (Российская самолетостроительная корпорация «МиГ»), or RSK MiG, is a Russian joint stock company. Formerly Mikoyan-and-Gurevich Design Bureau (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич, МиГ), then simply Mikoyan, it is a military aircraft design bureau, primarily designing fighter aircraft. Its head office is in Begovoy District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Moscow.

It was formerly a Soviet design bureau, and was founded by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich as "Mikoyan and Gurevich", with the bureau prefix "MiG." Upon Mikoyan's death in 1970, Gurevich's name was dropped from the name of the bureau, although the bureau prefix remained "MiG". The firm also operates several machine-building and design bureaus, including the Kamov helicopter plant.

MiG aircraft are a staple of the Soviet and Russian air forces, and the Soviet Union sold many of these aircraft within its sphere of influence. They have been used by the militaries of China, North Korea, and North Vietnam in aerial confrontations with American and allied forces, and form part of the air forces of many Arab nations.

In 2006, the Russian government merged 100% of Mikoyan shares with Ilyushin, Irkut, Sukhoi, Tupolev, and Yakovlev as a new company named United Aircraft Corporation Specifically, Mikoyan and Sukhoi were placed within the same operating unit.

MiG aircraft

• 
  
  
  
  • MiG-1, 1940  
  • MiG-3, 1941
  
• MiG-9/I-300, 1946
• MiG-15, 1948
• MiG-17, 1953
• MiG-19, 1954, MiG's first supersonic fighter
• MiG-21, 1956, fighter aircraft
  • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 variants
• MiG-23, 1967 (third use of MiG-23 designation)
• MiG-25, 1965, interceptor fighter and recce/strike aircraft
• MiG-27, 1970, a ground-attack aircraft derived from the MiG-23
• MiG-29, 1977, comparable to the US F-15 Eagle and F/A-18 Hornet
  
  • MiG-29K
  • MiG-29M
• MiG-31, 1975, interceptor fighter aircraft
• MiG-35, 2007, multi-role 4++ generation jet fighter

Experimental

• DIS/MiG-5, 1941 (escort fighter)
• MiG-6, 1940 (reconnaissance/ground attack aircraft)
• MiG-7, 1944
• MiG-8 Utka, 1945
• MiG I-210, 1941
• MiG I-211, 1942
• MiG I-220, 1943
• MiG I-222, 1944
• MiG I-224, 1944
• MiG I-225, 1944
• MiG I-230/MiG-3U, 1942
• MiG I-231, 1943
• MiG I-250 (N), 1945 (aka "MiG-13")
• MiG I-270, 1947
• MiG I-320, 1949
• MiG I-350, 1951
• MiG I-360, 1952
• MiG I-370, 1955
• MiG I-380, 1953
• MiG I-3, 1953
• MiG I-7U, 1957
• MiG I-75, 1958
• MiG SM-12, 1957
• MiG SN, 1953
• Ye-2, 1955
• Ye-4/Ye-5, 1955
• Ye-8, 1962, experimental fighter aircraft
• Ye-50, 1956
• Ye-150, 1958
• Ye-151
• Ye-152, 1959, fighter
• Ye-166
• MiG-23 – (first use of designation) production designation of Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-2A, 1956
• MiG-23 – (second use of designation) early name of Mikoyan-Gurevich Ye-8 (E-8/1 and E-8/2), 1960
• MiG-AT, 1996
• MiG-110, 1995
• MiG MFI objekt 1.44/1.42, 1986–2000
• MiG LFI project
• MiG-105 Spiral, 1965
• MiG-33
• Mikoyan LMFS

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mbraer EMB 312 Tucanoe

The Embraer EMB 312 Tucano    is a low-wing tandem-seat single-turboprop basic trainer with counter-insurgency capability developed in Brazil. The Brazilian Air Force sponsored the EMB-312 project at the end of 1978. Design and development work began in 1979 on a low-cost, relatively simple new basic trainer with innovative features which eventually became the international standard for basic training aircraft. The prototype first flew in 1980, and initial production units were delivered in 1983.

Production was initially supported by a local order for 118 aircraft with options for an additional 50 units in October 1980. It was later matched by an Egyptian licence-produced purchase in 1993 and subsequently by an improved variant known as the Short Tucano, which was licence-produced in the United Kingdom.^[4] The Tucano made inroads into the military trainer arena and became one of Embraer's first international marketing successes. A total of 664 units were produced (504 by Embraer and 160 by Short Brothers), flying in sixteen air forces over five continents.

Background

The Brazilian military government considered aircraft strategic equipment, and in an effort to reduce dependency from foreign companies, the state-owned Embraer was established in 1969. A production license to assemble the MB.326 was acquired in 1970 to familiarize the company with military design, and in 1973 the EMB-110 was introduced with a twin Pratt & Whitney PT6A engine that later would be shared with the Tucano.

After all-jet training program trials during the 1950s, a variety of propeller-driven aircraft were used for pilot training during the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1970s oil prices rapidly increased with the price of a crude oil barrel having risen from $3 in 1973 to $36 by 1980, deflating the Brazilian economy. At that time the Brazilian Air Force operated the J69-powerered Cessna T-37C, which was a 1950s design and following the 1970s energy crisis became expensive to operate. In 1977 the Brazilian Air Force expressed a desire to replace the T-37, specifying that the replacement would need to be cheap to operate, designed to closely imitate the characteristics of jet aircraft and should have ejection seats.

During the 1970s the Brazilian Air Force operated over one hundred piston-powered Neiva Universal basic trainers.^[13] Encouraged to undertake a follow-on project known as "Universal II", Indústria Aeronáutica Neiva rolled out the prototype N621A (YT-25A) in 1975 with an extended body, four hard points, and the more powerful 400 hp Lycoming IO-720-A1A engine which drove a three-bladed Hartzell propeller The YT-25B prototype, a further modified version with six hard points, flew in 22 October 1978, but it did not meet requirements since the type was slower and smaller, and had side-by-side seats and a rear jump seat. Two years later, the company was acquired by Embraer. In 1973 designer Joseph Kovács moved from Neiva to Embraer, bringing with him a number of studies based on the Neiva Universal including a development of the tandem-seat turbo-prop Carajá.

development

1. EMB-312S

An agreement was signed in May 1984 between Embraer and Short Brothers to modify the EMB 312 to meet a Royal Air Forcerequirement for a high-performance turbo-prop trainer to replace the Jet Provost issued in 1983. Short Brothers was responsible for the final assembly and licence-built 60% of the aircraft parts, although the wings, landing gear and canopy were built in Brazil.

In March 1985, after a competition with other types, the Short Tucano was declared the winner with an order worth £126 million for 130 aircraft and an option for a further 15. As well as production for the Royal Air Force, the Short Tucano was exported to Kenya (12 Tucano Mk.51s) and Kuwait (16 Tucano Mk.52s)        

EMB-312H 

During the mid-1980s, as Embraer was working on the Short Tucano, the company also developed a new version designated the EMB-312G1. Also using a Garrett engine, the EMB-312G1 prototype flew for the first time in July 1986. However, the Brazilian Air Force showed no interest, and the project was dropped. Nonetheless, the lessons from recent combat use of the aircraft in Peru and Venezuela, led Embraer to continue the studies. It also researched a helicopter attack version designated as the "Helicopter killer" or EMB-312H. The study was stimulated by the unsuccessful bid for the Joint Primary Aircraft Training System (JPATS) program. A proof-of-concept prototype, the PT-ZTW, flew for the first time in September 1991. The aircraft featured a 1.37-metre (4.49-ft) fuselage extension with the addition of sections fore and aft of the cockpit to restore its centre of gravity and stability, a strengthened airframe, cockpit pressurization and stretched nose to house the more powerful PT6A-67R (1.424 Shp) engine. Two new prototype EMB-312HJs with the PT6A-68A (1.250 Shp) engine were built in 1993. The second prototype PT-ZTV (later PP-ZTV) flew for the first time in May 1993, and the third prototype PT-PP-ZTF flew in October 1993. The EMB-312H's design later served as a starting point for the EMB-314 Super Tucano, dubbed the ALX, and adopted by the Brazilian Air Force as the A-29

Design

Many features of the EMB-312 became standard in later basic training aircraft designs. It was the first turboprop trainer developed from the beginning with military jet capability. A Martin-Baker Mk8L was fitted. It was Embraer's first aircraft with tandem seats designed with a raised rear seat optimized for an uninterrupted view from the rear cockpit and a frameless bubble canopy for unobstructed visibility. Major aircraft features include an automatic torque control system and the jet-like single-lever throttle which combined both engine power and propeller pitch, assuring smooth and rapid acceleration and deceleration

The aircraft is fitted with a retractable tricycle undercarriage with steerable nosewheels,allowing a fairly large crab angle during cross wind landing The reverse pitch control that the aircraft is fitted with allows the constant-speed mechanism to be manually overridden to reverse the blade pitch angle, thus providing excellent ground handling characteristics, helping to slow down the plane to shorten the landing run. This control also allows the aircraft to back up on its own during taxiing.

High manoeuvrability, stability at low speeds, and four underwing pylons providing for up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) of ordnance, allow the training aircraft to engage in tactical bombing campaigns in low intensity conflict or counterinsurgency environments and in counternarcotics interceptions.The type can carry up to 694 litres (183 US gal) of fuel internally additionally, two fuel tanks of 660 litres (170 US gal) can be fitted to underwing weapon stations for extended endurance,enabling up to nine flight hours.

Operational history

Argentina

Angola

Brazil

Colombia

France

Egypt

Honduras

Iraq

Iran

Mauritania

Paraguay

Peru

Venezuela

Variants

EMB-312A

The standard production model with fatigue life of 8,000 hours.

• Tucano YT-27
  Pre-series prototypes
• Tucano T-27
  Two-seat basic training variant.
• Tucano AT-27
  Two-se
  An uprated version built for the French Air Force, the EMB-312F is equipped with Telecommunications Electronique Aeronautique et Maritime (TEAM SA, part of Cobham plc) avionics, Thomson-CSF (now Thales Group) navigation aids, increased fatigue life, propeller and canopy de-icing system and a ventral airbrake. The first EMB-312F flew on 7 April 1993.
  
  at light attack variant.

EMB-312F 

Also known as the Short Tucano, the EMB-312S is an uprated licence-produced trainer version built at Short Brothers of Belfast in Northern Ireland for the Royal Air Force and licensed for export. The type features a more powerful Honeywell 820 kW (1,1000shp) allied signal TPE331-12B engine with four-blade variable pitch propeller, custom avionics, structural strengthening expanding fatigue life to 12,000hr, two-piece canopy for better bird strike proofing, pressurized cabin, a ventral airbrake, aerodynamic changes to the wing, better wheel brakes, and an optional armament capability.EMB-312S.

• Tucano T.1
  Original version of the Short Tucano used by the RAF.

• Tucano Mk.51
  Export variant for Kenya Air Force.
  
• Tucano Mk.52
  Export variant for Kuwait Air Force.

EMB-312G1

A prototype built in 1986 with Garrett engine..

EMB-312H

A Northrop/Embraer developed prototype for USAF (JPATS) competition for an advanced trainer, from which derived the EMB-314 Super Tucano (ALX) now in production for FAB.

Specifications (standard EMB 312)

General characteristics

• Length: 9.86 m (32 ft 4 in)
• Wingspan: 11.14 m (36 ft 6 in)
• Height: 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in)
• Wing area: 19.4 m² (209 sq ft)
• Empty weight: 1,810 kg (3,991 lb)
• Max. takeoff weight: 3,175 kg (7,000 lb)
• Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-25C turboprop, 552 kW (750 hp) 
• Internal fuel: 694 litres (183 US gal)

Performance

• Never exceed speed: 539 km/h (291 kts)
• Maximum speed: 458 km/h (247 kt) at 4,115 metres (13,501 ft)
• Cruise speed: 441 km/h (238 kt) at 3,350 metres (10,990 ft)
• Stall speed: 67 kt (124 km/h)
• Range: 1,916 km (1,034 NM) on internal fuel
• G limits: +6/-3
• Endurance: 9hrs
• Service ceiling: 8,750 m (28,700 ft)
• Rate of climb: 1,900 ft/min (9.65 m/s)
• Wing loading: 164 kg/m² (33.5 lb/ft²)

Armament

• Guns:
  • Gun pods: 
    • AN/M-B machine gun
    • 12,7 mm machine gun
    • 7,62 mm machine gun (500 rounds)
  • Rocket Machine Gun pod:
    • RMP LC with a 12.7mm M3P and (4x) 70 mm
• Hardpoints: 4 under-wing pylons with a capacity of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb)
• Rockets:
  
  • 127 mm HVAR ground rockets
  • Rocket pods:
    • SBAT (7x) 37 mm
    • SBAT (7x) 70 mm
• Bombs:
  • General-purpose bomb:
    • Mk 81
    • Mk 82
  • Practice bomb:
    • MK 76 (20 lb)
• Others:
  • Ferry tanks: 2x 660 litres (170 US gal)or 330 litres (87 US gal) .

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